In practice, learning has
long been viewed as essentially a matter of storing information for later
recall; and, teaching has been regarded as a process of imparting knowledge
to students by breaking it down into manageable pieces for easy memorization
and understanding. Rather than creating or using knowledge in an authentic
context, schools compel pupils to memorize fragmented information (facts,
formulas, and algorithms) in less than authentic contexts, a process
begun and reinforced in teacher preparation programs. From a constructivist
viewpoint, the subject-matter expertise of the teacher is certainly important,
but the historical emphasis on mastery of a body of knowledge in the liberal
arts curriculum reinforces traditional methods of teaching and memorization,
methods rejected in constructivism.
The teacher is caught between
opposing forces, the traditions and a view that encourages experimentation
and more reliance upon students for their own learning, the other that
urges a linear, rational hypothetico-deductive methodology. Shulman
(1986) has described the new view:
Changes in both teaching
and teacher education will become operational through the minds and motives
of teachers. Understanding how and why teachers plan for instruction,
the explicit and implicit theories they bring to bear in their work, and
the conceptions of subject matter that influence their explanations, directions,
feedback and correctives, will continue as a central feature of research
on teaching, A comprehensive understanding of teaching will include
explanations of both thought and action in teachers as well as students
(p. 26).
Reflective teacher education
is not a new concept, because such alternatives have existed for a long
time but never fully embraced. Dewey
called for instruction that promoted learning though genuine activities,
what are today called authentic learning experiences created by the teacher.
Dewey believed that teacher preparation programs should focus on "making
the professional student thoughtful about his work in the light of principles,
rather than to induce in him a recognition that certain special methods
are good, and certain other special methods are bad" (Dewey, 1904, p.22).
Teachers use judgments to
facilitate student learning and knowledge construction. This concept
of the teacher as a facilitator of student learning brings into focus the
important role of learners as active participants in the teaching-learning
process, but the teacher's role includes possessing the knowledge, skills,
and beliefs necessary to make decisions about the goals, strategies, and
educational consequences of teaching (Schon, 1987). Reflective teachers
have the capacity for three types of reflection--technical, practical,
and critical. "Technical rationality" entails decisions concerning
efficient and effective application of pedagogical knowledge. When
taking "practical action," the teacher advances beyond the purely instrumental
preoccupation with technical effectiveness to concern about clarifying
the assumptions and predispositions underlying competing educational goals.
When engaged in "critical reflection," the teacher incorporates professional,
moral, and ethical criteria into decisions about teaching. Through
clinical practice and continued professional preparation, teachers can
develop and enhance their abilities as reflective decision makers.
Teachers base their judgments
on a limited body of general principles and prior experience in instructional
settings. Improved instruction results from greater knowledge about
a subject to go beyond transmission of facts. Developing "pedagogical
thinking" involves knowledge of self, students, and subject matter
simultaneously (Feiman-Nemser & Buchmann, 1985). This reflection leads
teachers to explore the implications of theories for teaching and the mastery
of subject matter knowledge by students (Dewey, 1929, 1938; Schon, 1987).
In traditional models of
teacher preparation, there has been an emphasis on what teachers need to
know. In reflective practice, there is greater concern about how
teachers decide what to do in the classroom (Ferstenmacher, 1978). Teaching
is no longer thought of simply as causing children to learn, but
regarded as a constituent part of a natural process. In the
traditional view, a prospective teacher might be asked, "Do you know arithmetic,
geography, and so forth." Today a teacher might also be asked, "Do
you know how to influence mental activity? Have you given that serious
study?"
When you consider a plan,
be sure to include evaluation
of the program of professional development.
References
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Anderson, R. C. (1984).
Some reflections on the acquisition of knowledge. Educational
Researcher, 13 (9), 5-10.
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Brophy, J. (1983).
Research on the self-fulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations.
Journal
of Educational Psychology, 75, 631-661.
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Buchmann, M. (1982). The
flight away from content in teaching. Journal of Curriculum Studies,
14, 61-68.
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Buchmann, M, and Schwille, J.
(1983). Education: The overcoming of experience.
American
Journal of Education, 92, 30-51.
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Dewey, J. (1964a). The
nature of method. In R. Archambault (Ed.) John Dewey on education
(pp. 387-403). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original
work published 1916).
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Dewey, J. (1964b). The
nature of subject matter. In R. R. Archambault (Ed.), John Dewey
on education (pp. 359-372). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
(Original work published 1916).
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Feiman-Nemser, S. (1983).
Learning to teach. In L. Shulman and G. Sykes (Eds.), Handbook
of teaching and policy, (pp. 150-170). New York: Longman.
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Feiman-Nemser, S., and Buchmann,
M. (1986). The first year of teacher preparation: Transition to pedagogical
thinking. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 18, 239-256.
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Highet, G. (1966). The
art of teaching. New York: Knopf.
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Kohl, H. (1984).
Growing
minds: On becoming a teacher. New York: Harper and
Row.
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Leinhardt, G., and Smith, D.
(1985). Expertise in mathematics instruction: Subject matter
knowledge. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 247-271.
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Lortie, D. (1975). Schoolteacher:
A sociological study. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Shulman, L. S. (1986).
Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching.
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Researcher, 15(2), 4-14.
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